Description
Taxonomy
| Kingdom | Phylum | Class | Order | Family | Genus |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Animalia | Platyhelminthes | Cestoda | Proteocephalidea | Proteocephalidae | Proteocephalus |
Synonyms
Invasion History
Chesapeake Bay Status
| First Record | Population | Range | Introduction | Residency | Source Region | Native Region | Vectors |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1973 | Established | Unknown | Introduced | Unconfirmed | North America | North America | Fisheries(Fisheries Accidental) |
History of Spread
Proteocephalus ambloplites (Bass Tapeworm) is a cestode which is best known as a parasite of 'Black Basses', Micropterus dolomieu (Smallmouth Bass), M. salmoides, and M. punctulatus (Spotted Bass). Micropterus spp. appear to be the most common definitive hosts, required for completion of the tapeworm's life cycle (Bangham 1927; Fischer and Freeman 1969; Hunter 1929). However, adult P. ambloplitis are also known from Ambloplites rupestris (Rock Bass) (Leidy 1887), Amia calva (Bowfin), Morone chrysops (White Bass) and Morone mississippiensis (Yellow Bass) (Amin 1990). The early (pleurocercoid) stages infest a wide range of species, including a variety of centrarchids [A. rupestris (Rock Bass); Lepomis macrochirus (Bluegill) and sometimes in other fishes] [A. calva ; Salvelinus fontinalis (Brook Trout); Salvelinus namycush (Lake Trout); Oncorhynchus mykiss (Rainbow Trout); Notropis hudsonius (Spottail Shiner); Perca flavescens (Yellow Perch)] (Hoffman 1967; United States National Parasite Collection 1998).
Proteocephalus ambloplites was described from Ambloplites rupestris (Rock Bass) in Lake George NY (Leidy 1887). It was recognized as a serious pest in fish hatcheries by the 1920's in the vicinity of Lake Erie (Bangham 1927), and was subsequently found over much of the Great Lakes and Mississippi basins from Ontario and NY west to MN ND, and KS south to AL, LA, and in southeastern Atlantic drainages in NC and SC (Eure 1976; Fischer and Freeman 1969; Hoffman 1967; United States National Parasite Collection 1998). This distribution corresponds with the native range of Micropterus spp. (Jenkins and Burkhead 1993; Lee et al. 1980; Page and Burr 1991). The northern boundary of M. salmoides' native range on the Atlantic slope is somewhat uncertain, but Jenkins and Burkhead (1993) consider this species to have been probably introduced north of the Tar River, NC. We consider this to be the probable northern limit for P. ambloplitis also.
Another, less widely recognized definitive host of P. ambloplites, is Amia calva (Bowfin) (Amin 1990; Amin and Cowen 1990). Amia calva is native to the Great Lakes basin, the Mississippi and Gulf of Mexico basins, and to the southeastern Atlantic Slope (Lee et al. 1980; Page and Burr 1991). It is native to tributaries on the western side of the Chesapeake, probably as far north as the Potomac (Jenkins and Burkhead 1993), but is probably introduced in the Susquehanna River (Denoncourt et al. 1975b; Fowler 1919; Stauffer 1874), and in other Upper Bay tributaries (Pearson and Ward 1972).
Occurrences of P. ambloplitis in other areas of North America, including New England, the Pacific states, Arctic Ocean river drainges in Canada, and in the southwest United States are believed to have resulted from introductions of Micropterus spp (Hoffman 1970). This tapeworm was discovered in WA in the 1960's in lakes which had been stocked with M. salmoides and M. dolomieu (Hoffman 1970). It has been found in Lake Mead NV, on the Colorado River in 1953 (United States National Parasite Collection 1998). The introduction of Micropterus salmoides into in Boundary Reservoir, Sakatchewan (only 49 N but in the Arctic Ocean drainage) in 1983-1986, brought this parasite into the Canadian Prairie region (Szalai and Dick 1990). On the Atlantic slope, P. ambloplitis is known from CT, MA, NH, and ME (Hoffman 1967), and has probably been introduced much more widely than these records indicate. Proteocephalus ambloplitis was been found in fish hatcheries in Puerto Rico in 1992 (United States National Parasite Collection 1998), but it is not known to have been introduced to other continents, although Micropterus spp. are now established on every continent except Antarctica (Hardy 1978).
While most records of P. ambloplitis from its introduced range appear to have occurred after 1950, the tapeworm was probably introduced much earlier. 'Black Bass' were extensively introduced outside their native range by private citizens, possibly as early as 1800 (Jenkins and Burkhead 1993), and after ~1870, by state agencies and the United States Fish Commission. In one year (1893), the United States Fish Commission shipped Micropterus spp. to 29 states (Worth 1895).
The one report we have found of Proteocephalus ambloplitis iin the Chesapeake Bay watershed is from Micropterus dolomieu collected in the Susquehanna River, in Luzerne and Wyoming Counties, central PA in 1973 (Deutsch 1977). Twenty-eight percent of fish were infected. Since M. dolomieu occurs throughout the river, and is a regular resident in the tidal portion (Pavol and Davis 1982), we consider that this tapeworm is probably present in tidal waters as well. Other potential hosts include M. salmoides, common in tidal fresh and oligohaline waters around the Bay, and A. calva, common in tributaries some south of the Potomc, and occasionally in estuaries (Jenkins and Burkhead 1993).
Helminth parasites were also investigated at Westhampton Lake, Richmond VA, in the James River drainage, in 1950-51. However, only 5 M. salmoides were examined for worms other than monogenetic trematodes, and none of these had tapeworms (Holliday and Bogitsh 1964).
History References - Amin 1990; Bangham 1927; Denoncourt et al. 1975b; Deutsch 1977; Eure 1976; Fischer and Freeman 1969; Fowler 1919; Hardy 1978; Hoffman 1967;Hoffman 1970; Hoffman and Schubert 1984; Holliday and Bogitsh 1964; Hunter 1929; Jenkins and Burkhead 1993; Lee et al. 1980; Leidy 1887; Page and Burr 1991; Pavol and Davis 1982; Pearson and Ward 1972; Stauffer 1874; Szalai and Dick 1990; United States National Parasite Collection 1998; Worth 1895
Invasion Comments
Chesapeake Regions Invaded - Reported from the Susquehanna River in Wyoming and Luzerne Counties PA (Deutsch 1977), one of the only 2 locations in Chesapeake watershed where helminth parasites have been been extensively studied. Based on the distribution of its known hosts Micropterus dolomieu, M. punctulatus, and M. salmoides (Jenkins and Burkhead 1993; Pavol and Daivs 1993), Proteocephalus ambloplitis is considered likely to occur in many tidal fresh and oligohaline tributaries on the western shore of Chesapeake Bay.
Invasion Status - Two of the known definitive host species, M. salmoides and M. punctulatus, are definitely introduced to the Chesapeake watershed as a whole. M. salmoides is considered probably introduced in the James drainage, and definitely introduced in rivers to the north (Jenkins and Burkhead 1993).
Residency - We have not yet found any studies of cestodes of introduced fish species in the tidal waters of Chesapeake Bay. Inclusion of Proteocephalus ambloplitis is based on its presence in Micropterus dolomieu (Smallmouth Bass) in the Chesapeake watershed in the Susquehanna River, central PA (Deutsch 1977). Micropterus dolomieu (Smallmouth Bass) is a regular resident in Chesapeake tributaries (Jenkins and Burkhead 1993; Pavol and Davis 1982). Other frequent hosts of P. ambloplitis, including Ambloplites rupestris (Rock Bass) (Leidy 1887), Micropterus salmoides (Largemouth Bass) (Hoffman 1967), and Lepomis macrochirus (Bluegill) (Bailey 1984), are also common to abundant in Chesapeake tributaries.
Ecology
Environmental Tolerances
| For Survival | For Reproduction | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Minimum | Maximum | Minimum | Maximum | |
| Temperature (ºC) | ||||
| Salinity (‰) | 0.0 | 0.0 | ||
| Oxygen | hypoxic | |||
| pH | ||||
| Salinity Range | fresh-oligo |
Age and Growth
| Male | Female | |
|---|---|---|
| Minimum Adult Size (mm) | 203.0 | 203.0 |
| Typical Adult Size (mm) | 304.0 | 304.0 |
| Maximum Adult Size (mm) | 305.0 | 305.0 |
| Maximum Longevity (yrs) | ||
| Typical Longevity (yrs |
Reproduction
| Start | Peak | End | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Reproductive Season | |||
| Typical Number of Young Per Reproductive Event |
|||
| Sexuality Mode(s) | |||
| Mode(s) of Asexual Reproduction |
|||
| Fertilization Type(s) | |||
| More than One Reproduction Event per Year |
|||
| Reproductive Startegy | |||
| Egg/Seed Form |
Impacts
Economic Impacts in Chesapeake Bay
Specific economic impacts of Proteocephalus ambloplitis in the Chesapeake Bay region are not known. A possible impact of this parasite is reduction of fertility and recruitment of Micropterus dolomieu, M. punctulatus, and M. salmoides, which are important gamefishes in the wateshed and tidal waters (Fewlass 1980; Jenkins and Burkhead 1993; Pavol and Davis 1983).
References - Fewlass 1980; Jenkins and Burkhead 1993; Pavol and Davis 1983
Economic Impacts Outside of Chesapeake Bay
Proteocephalus ambloplitis has long been recognized as a troublesome pest in fish hatcheries and reservoirs, where the pleuroceroids may affect the growth and reproduction of Micropterus spp. ('Black Basses'), which are highly prized gamefishes (Bangham 1927; Hunter 1929). The extensive stocking of these fishes thoughout the United States has led to the spread of this parasite also (Becker and Brunson 1968; Hoffman 1967; Szalai and Dick 1990). While the adult tapeworms have a small number of known hosts, the pleurocercoids can infect other gamefishes, when infected bass are stocked. In lakes in WA, Oncorhynchus mykiss were heavily infested with P. ambloplitis, although effects on their survival and growth were not known (Becker and Brunson 1968). Becker and Brunson (1968) suggest that all Micropterus spp. being released in parasite-free waters either be reared in parasite-free conditions or treated with antihelminthic drugs before release.
References - Bangham 1927; Becker and Brunson 1968; Hoffman 1967; Hunter 1929; Szalai and Dick 1990
Ecological Impacts on Chesapeake Native Species
We have no information on the occurrence, abundance and prevalence of Proteocephalus ambloplitis in tidal waters of Chesapeake Bay. While the adult worm seems limited to large predatory fishes, especially Micropterus spp., the pleurocercoids infect a wider range of hosts, and could be present in native species in the watershed and estuary. In the one location where P. ambloplitis has been studied, in the Susquehanna River in central PA, pleurocercoids were not reported from the 3 species of native fishes sampled. (Deutsch 1977). However, of 15 fishes found to be infested with pleurocercoids in a WI lake, 6 are also native to Chesapeake tributaries. Lepomis gibbosus (Pumpkinseed), in particular, had a high frequency of pleurocercoids (83%) in April (Amin 1990). One adult fish that can serve as a definitive host, at least in WI lakes, is Amia calva (Bowfin), which is considered native to the the Potomac, Rappahannock, York, and James River systems (Jenkins and Burkhead 1993), but may be introduced in the Susquehanna River and some upper Bay tributaries (Fowler 1919; Pearson and Ward 1972).
The pleurocercoids are especially damaging to their fish hosts. When the pleurocercoid stage I's are ingested with copepods, the pleurocercoids form cysts which can occur by the hundreds in the fish's intestine. The pleurocercoids move through the intestinal walls into the body cavity of the fish, and into the surrounding viscera (Amin 1990; Bangham 1927; Hunter and Hunter 1927). Among organs especially affected are the liver and ovaries. Damage includes blockage of circulation, replacement of tissue by parasites, and tissue necrosis, and death of eggs due to hypertrophy of ovarian tssue in response to infection (Amin 1990). Ovarian infections were seen mostly in centrarchids. One affected species native in the Chesapeake region is L. gibbosus (Amin 1990).
References - Amin 1990; Bangham 1927; Deutsch 1977; Fowler 1919; Hunter and Hunter 1927; Pearson and Ward 1972
Ecological Impacts on Other Chesapeake Non-Native Species
We have no information on the abundance and prevalence of Proteocephalus ambloplitis in tidal waters of Chesapeake Bay. In the one location where it has been studied, in the Susquehanna River in central PA, 28% of Micropterus dolomieu (Smallmouth Bass) were infected with adult tapeworms (Deutsch 1977). This host species has been studied in the tidal portion of the Susquehanna (Pavol and Davis 1982), but parasites were not examined. Another potential host, M. salmoides (Largemouth Bass) is common in most fresh-oligohaline tributaries (Fewlass 1980; Jenkins and Burkhead 1993).
Pleurocercoids affect both introduced and native species. The effects are described above 'Impacts on Residents/Comments'. Pathological sysmptoms of pleurocercoid ingestion seen in Micropterus spp. include: damage to the gut wall during penetration (Fischer and Freeman 1969); extensive liver necrosis, replacement of liver parenchyma with parasites, a paucity of bile ducts (Joy and Madan 1985); invasion of the ovarian tissue, resulting in scarring and decreases in functional oogenic tissue; invasion of oocytes (McCormick and Stokes 1982). This tapeworm has long been perceived as a danger to the fertility and reproduction of Micropterus spp., particularly in hatchery situations (Bangham 1927).
Other species, introduced in the Chesapeake region, which are adversely affected by P. ambloplitis pleurocercoids include Lepomis macrochirus (Bluegill) (Bailey 1983) and Ambloplites rupestris (Rock Bass) (Amin 1990). Damage to the viscera in theses species is similar to that described for Micropterus spp. Pleurocercoids of P. ambloplitis can heavily infect Oncorhynchus mykiss (Rainbow Trout), particularly the livers of the fish, but the growth of the pleurocercoids appears to be limited. Effects of parasitism on the survival of trout are unknown (Becker and Brunson 1968).
In contrast to the pleurocercoid, the adult tapeworm is relatively benign (Joy and Madan 1989). While Micropterus spp. are best known as hosts of the adult worm, A. rupestris, Amia calva [possibly introduced in upper Bay tributaries, native further south (Fowler 1919; Jenkins and Burkhead 1993; Pearson and Ward 1972)], and Morone chrysops (introduced in the watershed, establishment uncertain) can also serve as definitve hosts (Amin and Cowen 1990).
While Micropterus spp. and smaller centrarchids are important predators or planktivores in freshwater ecosystems, and their addition or removal from lakes is known to have wide-ranging trophic consequences, the ecological impact of reductions in their fertility and recruitment due to parasitism by P. ambloplitis is unknown.
References - Amin 1990; Amin and Cowen 1990; Bangham 1927; Bailey 1983; Becker and Brunsonb 1968; Deutsch 1977; Fischer and Freeman 1969; Fowler 1919; Hunter and Hunter 1927; Jenkins and Burkhead 1993; Joy and Madan 1989; McCormick and Stokes 1982; Pearson and Ward 1972
References
Amin, Omar M. (1990) Cestoda from lake fishes in Wisconsin: The ecology and pathology of Proteocephalus ambloplitis plerocercoids in their fish intermediate hosts., Journal of the Helminthological Society of Washington 57: 113-119Amin, Omar M.; Boarini, Mark A. (1992) Cestoda from lake fishes in Wisconsin: The morphological identity of plerocercoids ofProteocephalus ambloplitis., Transactions of the American Microscopical Society 111: 193-198
Amin, Omar M.; Cowen, Marsha (1990) Cestoda from lake fishes in Wisconsin: The ecology of Proteocephalus ambloplitis and Haplobothrium globuliforme in bass and bowfin, Journal of the Helminthological Society of Washington 57: 120-131
Bailey, W. C. (1984) Epizootiology of Posthodiplostomum minimum (MacCallum) and Proteocephalus ambloplitis (Leidy) in bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus Rafinesque), Canadian Journal of Zoology 62: 1363-1366
Bangham, Ralph H. (1927) Life history of bass cestoda Proteocephalus ambloplitis., Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 57: 206-209
Carlander, Kenneth D. (1977) Handbook of Freshwater Fishery Biology. , In: (Eds.) Handbook of Freshwater Fishery Biology, Volume Two: Life History Data on Centrarchid Fishes of the U.S & Canada. , Ames. Pp. Ames
Denoncourt, Robert F.; Robbins, Timothy W.; Hesser, Robert (1975) Recent introductions and reintroductions to the Pennsylvania fish fauna of the Susquehanna River drainage above Conowingo Dam, Proceedings of the Pennsylvania Academy of Science 49: 57-58
Deutsch, William G. (1977) Fish parasites from the Susquehanna River in Pennsylvania, with new host records, Proceedings of the Pennsylvania Academy of Science 51: 122-124
Esch, Gerald W.; Johnson, W. C.; Coggins, James R. (1975) Studies on the population biology of Proteocephalus ambloplitis (Cestoda) in the smallmouth bass, Proceedings of the Oklahoma Academy of Science 55: 122-127
Eure, Herman (1976) Seasonal abundance of Proteocephalus ambloplitis (Cestoidea: Proteocephalus) from largemouth bass living in a heated reservoir., Parasitology 73: 205-212
Fewlass, Leon (1980) Life history and management of the largemouth bass in upper Chesapeake Bay, F-20-R , Annapolis MD. Pp.
Fischer, Hartwig; Freeman, Reino S. (1969) Penetration of parenteral plerocercoids of Proteocephalus ambloplitis (Leidy) into the gut of smallmouth bass, The Journal of Parasitology 55: 766-774
Fischer, Hartwig; Freeman, Reino S. (1992) Role of plerocercoids in the biology of Proteocephalus ambloplitis (Cestoda) maturing in smallmouth bass, Canadian Journal of Zoology 51: 133-141
Fowler, Henry W. (1919) A list of the fishes of Pennsylvania, Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 32: 49-74
Hardy, Jerry D., Jr. (1978) Development of fishes of the Mid-Atlantic Bight. Vol. 3. Aphredoderidae through Rachycentridae., In: (Eds.) . , Washington DC. Pp.
Hildebrand, Samuel F.; Schroeder, William C. (1928) Fishes of Chesapeake Bay, Unites States Bureau of Bisheries Bulletin 53: 1-388
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Hoffman, Glenn L. (1970) Intercontinental and transcontinental dissemination and transfaunation of fish parasites with emphasis on whirling disease (Myxosoma cerebralis), American Fisheries Society Special Publication 5: 69-81
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Holloway, Harry L.; Jr.; Bogitsh, Burton, J. (1964) Helminths of Westhampton Lake fish, The Virginia Journal of Science 15: 41-44
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Jenkins, Robert E.; Burkhead, Noel M. (1993) Freshwater fishes of Virginia., , Bethesda, MD. Pp.
Joy, J. E.; Madan, E. (1989) Pathology of black bass hepatic tissue infected with larvae of the tapeworm Proteocephalus ambloplitis, Journal of Fish Biology 35: 111-118
Lee, David S.; Gilbert, Carter R.; Hocutt, Charles H.; Jenkins, Robert E.; McAllister, Don E.; Stauffer, Jay R. (1980) Atlas of North American Freshwater Fishes, , Raleigh. Pp.
Leidy, Joseph (1887) Notice of some parasitic worms, Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 39: 20-24
McCormick, Howard; Stokes, Gertrude N. (1982) Intraovarian invasion of smallmouth bass oocytes by Proteocephalus ambloplitis (Cestoda), The Journal of Parasitology 68: 973-975
Meador, M. R.; Kelso, W. E. (1990) Physiological responses of largemouth bass, Micropterus salmoides, exposed to salinity, Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 47: 2358-2363
Meador, Michael L.; Kelso, William E. (1989) Behavior and movement of largemouth bass in response to salinity, Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 118: 409-415
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Pearson, J. Gareth; Ward, F. Prescott (1972) A new record of the bowfin Amia calva Linnaeus in the upper Chesapeake Bay, Chesapeake Science 13: 323-324
Szalai, Alexander J.; Dick, Terry A. (1990) Proteocephalus ambloplitis and Contracaecum sp. from largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) stocked into Boundary Reservoir, Saskatchewan., The Journal of Parasitology 76: 598-601
Worth, S. G. (1895) A review of the history and results of the attempts to acclimatize fish and other water animals in the Pacific states, In: (Eds.) Report of the United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries for 1893. , Washington D.C.. Pp. 78-138